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The Sahara (, aṣ-ṣaḥrā´ al-koubra, "The Great Desert", ()) is technically the world's second largest desert after Antarctica.Since there is little precipitation in Antarctica as well, except at the coasts, the interior of the continent is technically the largest desert in the world. At over 9,000,000 square kilometres (3,500,000 square mile), it covers most parts of northern Africa; an area stretching from the Red Sea, including parts of the Mediterranean coasts, to the outskirts of the Atlantic ocean. It is almost as large as the United States, and is larger than Australia. As its name derives from an Arabic word meaning "desert": "ṣaḥrā´" (صحراء), to refer to the Sahara as the "Sahara Desert" can be considered a Tautology (rhetoric). "Sahara." Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian. Accessed on June 25, 2007. English-Arabic online dictionary

Geography The Sahara covers huge parts of Algeria, Burkina Faso, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Western Sahara, Senegal, Sudan and Tunisia.

The Sahara includes many landforms such as rivers (Nile River, Sénégal River), mountain ranges (Aïr Mountains, Ahaggar Mountains, Saharan Atlas, Tibesti Mountains), smaller deserts and Erg (landform)s (Libyan Desert, Ténéré, Egyptian Sand Sea, Qattara Depression, Erg of Bilma, Erg Chebbi), lakes (Lake Chad) and oases (Bahariya Oasis, Ghardaïa, Timimoun).

According to a botanical criteria of Cap-Rey, the Sahara is comprised between the following: {{cite book | author = Bisson, J. | year = 2003 | title = Mythes et réalités d'un désert convoité: le Sahara | publisher = L'Harmattan | isbn = -->{{fr icon-->



According to climate criteria:{{cite book| author = Walton, K. | year = 2007 | title = The Arid Zones | publisher = Aldine | isbn = -->



Climate history in the Ahaggar MountainsThe climate of the Sahara has undergone enormous variation between wet and dry over the last few hundred thousand years. During the last ice age, the Sahara was bigger than it is today, extending south beyond its current boundaries.Christopher Ehret. The Civilizations of Africa. University Press of Virginia, 2002. The end of the ice age brought better times to the Sahara, from about 8000 BC to 6000 BC, perhaps due to low pressure areas over the collapsing ice sheets to the north. Fezzan Project — Palaeoclimate and environment, retrieved March 15 2006.Once the ice sheets were gone, the northern part of the Sahara dried out. However, not long after the end of the ice sheets, the monsoon which currently brings rain to the Sahara came further north and counteracted the drying trend in the southern Sahara. The monsoon in Africa (and elsewhere) is due to heating during the summer. Air over land becomes warmer and rises, pulling in cool wet air from the ocean. This causes rain. Paradoxically, the Sahara was wetter when it received more solar insolation in the summer. In turn, changes in solar insolation are caused by changes in the Earth's orbital elements"Geophysical Research Letters" Simulation of an abrupt change in Saharan vegetation in the mid-Holocene - July 15th, 1999.

By around 2500 BC, the monsoon retreated south to approximately where it is today, Sahara's Abrupt Desertification Started by Changes in Earth's Orbit, Accelerated by Atmospheric and Vegetation Feedbacks. leading to the desertification of the Sahara. The Sahara is currently as dry as it was about 13,000 years ago. These conditions are responsible for what has been called the Sahara Pump Theory.

The Sahara has one of the harshest climates in the world. It has many strong winds that blow from the north-east. Sometimes on the border zones of the north and south, the desert will receive about 25 cm (10 in.) of rain a year. The rainfall happens very rarely, but when it does it is usually torrential when it occurs after long dry periods, which can last for years.

==History==

Egyptians By 6000 BC predynastic Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle and construction large buildings. Subsistence in organized and permanent towns in predynastic Egypt by the middle of the 6th millennium BC centered predominantly on cereal and animal History of agriculture: cattle, goats, pigs and sheep. Metal objects replaced prior ones of rock (geology). Tanning of animal skins, pottery and weaving are commonplace in this era also. Predynastic] (5,500–3,100 BC), Tour Egypt]. There are indications of seasonal or only temporary occupation of the Al Fayyum in the 6th millennium BC, with food activities centering on fishing, hunting and food-gathering. Stone arrowheads, knife and scrapers are common. Fayum, Qarunian (Fayum B, about 6000–5000 BC?), Digital Egypt. Burial items include pottery, jewelry, farming and hunting equipment, and assorted foods including dried meat and fruit. The dead are buried facing due west.By 2500 BC the Sahara was as dry as it is today, and it became a largely impenetrable barrier to humans, with only scattered settlements around the oases, but little trade or commerce through the desert. The one major exception was the Nile. The Nile, however, was impassable at several Cataracts of the Niles, making trade and contact by boat difficult.

Nubians During the Neolithic, before the onset of desertification, the central Sudan had been a rich environment supporting a large population ranging across what is now barren desert, like the Wadi el-Qa'ab. By the 5th millennium BC, the peoples who inhabited what is now called Nubia, were full participants in the "agricultural revolution," living a settled lifestyle with domesticated plants and animals. Saharan rock art of cattle and herdsmen found suggests the presence of a cattle cult like those found in Sudan and other pastoral societies in Africa today. History of Nubia Megaliths found at Nabta Playa are overt examples of probably the world's first known Archaeoastronomy devices, out dating Stonehenge by some 1000 years. PlanetQuest: The History of Astronomy - Retrieved on 2007-08-29 This complexity, as observed at Nabta Playa, and as expressed by different levels of authority within the society there, likely formed the basis for the structure of both the Neolithic society at Nabta and the Old Kingdom of Egypt. Late Neolithic megalithic structures at Nabta Playa - by Fred Wendorf (1998)

Phoenicians The peoples of Phoenicia, who flourished between 1200-800 BC, created a confederation of kingdoms across the entire Sahara to Egypt. They generally settled along the Mediterranean coast, as well as the Sahara, among the peoples of Ancient Libya, who were the ancestors of peoples who speak Berber languages in North Africa and the Sahara today, including the Tuareg of the central Sahara.

The Phoenician alphabet seems to have been adopted by the ancient Libyans of north Africa, and Tifinagh is still used today by Berber-speaking Tuareg camel herders of the central Sahara.

Sometime between 633 BC and 530 BC, Hanno the Navigator either established or reinforced Phoenician colonies in Western Sahara, but all ancient remains have vanished with virtually no trace. (See History of Western Sahara.)

Greeks By 500 BC a new influence arrived in the form of the Ancient Greece. Greek traders spread along the eastern coast of the desert, establishing trading colonies along the Red Sea coast. The Carthage explored the Atlantic coast of the desert. The turbulence of the waters and the lack of markets never led to an extensive presence further south than modern Morocco. Centralized states thus surrounded the desert on the north and east; it remained outside of the control of these states. Raids from the nomadic Berber people of the desert were a constant concern of those living on the edge of the desert.

man Urban civilization An urban civilization, the Garamantes, arose around this time in the heart of the Sahara, in a valley that is now called the Wadi al-Ajal in Fazzan, Libya. The Garamantes achieved this development by digging tunnels far into the mountains flanking the valley to tap fossil water and bring it to their fields. The Garamantes grew populous and strong, conquering their neighbors and capturing many slaves (which were put to work extending the tunnels). The ancient Greeks and the Ancient Rome knew of the Garamantes and regarded them as uncivilized nomads. However, they traded with the Garamantes, and a Roman bath has been found in the Garamantes capital of Garama. Archaeology have found eight major towns and many other important settlements in the Garamantes territory. The Garamantes civilization eventually collapsed after they had depleted available water in the aquifers, and could no longer sustain the effort to extend the tunnels still further into the mountains.Keys, David. 2004. Kingdom of the Sands. Archaeology. Volume 57 Number 2, March/April 2004. Abstract retrieved March 13 2006.

Trans-Saharan Trade Following the Islamic conquest of North Africa in the seventh century Common Era, trade across the desert intensified. The kingdoms of the Sahel, especially the Ghana Empire and the later Mali Empire, grew rich and powerful exporting gold and salt to North Africa. The emirates along the Mediterranean Sea sent south manufactured goods and horses. From the Sahara itself, edible salt was exported. This process turned the scattered oasis communities into trading centres, and brought them under the control of the empires on the edge of the desert. A significant slave trade crossed the desert (See Arab slave trade).

This trade persisted for several centuries until the development in Europe of the caravel allowed ships, first from Portugal but soon from all Western Europe, to sail around the desert and gather the resources from the source in Guinea (region). The Sahara was rapidly remarginalized.

Modern days Throughout the Sahara, Berbers, Arabs, and sub-Saharan Africans are significantly represented genetically.

The modern era has seen a number of mining and communities develop to exploit the desert's natural resources. These include large deposits of petroleum and natural gas in Algeria and Libya and large deposits of phosphates in Morocco and Western Sahara.

Fauna

There exist other animals in the Sahara (birds in particular) such as African Silverbill and Black-throated Firefinch among others.

See also

References

Notes External links

The Sahara (, aṣ-ṣaḥrā´ al-koubra, "The Great Desert", ()) is technically the world's second largest desert after Antarctica.Since there is little precipitation in Antarctica as well, except at the coasts, the interior of the continent is technically the largest desert in the world. At over 9,000,000 square kilometres (3,500,000 square mile), it covers most parts of northern Africa; an area stretching from the Red Sea, including parts of the Mediterranean coasts, to the outskirts of the Atlantic ocean. It is almost as large as the United States, and is larger than Australia. As its name derives from an Arabic word meaning "desert": "ṣaḥrā´" (صحراء), to refer to the Sahara as the "Sahara Desert" can be considered a Tautology (rhetoric). "Sahara." Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian. Accessed on June 25, 2007. English-Arabic online dictionary

Geography The Sahara covers huge parts of Algeria, Burkina Faso, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Western Sahara, Senegal, Sudan and Tunisia.

The Sahara includes many landforms such as rivers (Nile River, Sénégal River), mountain ranges (Aïr Mountains, Ahaggar Mountains, Saharan Atlas, Tibesti Mountains), smaller deserts and Erg (landform)s (Libyan Desert, Ténéré, Egyptian Sand Sea, Qattara Depression, Erg of Bilma, Erg Chebbi), lakes (Lake Chad) and oases (Bahariya Oasis, Ghardaïa, Timimoun).

According to a botanical criteria of Cap-Rey, the Sahara is comprised between the following: {{cite book | author = Bisson, J. | year = 2003 | title = Mythes et réalités d'un désert convoité: le Sahara | publisher = L'Harmattan | isbn = -->{{fr icon-->



According to climate criteria:{{cite book| author = Walton, K. | year = 2007 | title = The Arid Zones | publisher = Aldine | isbn = -->



Climate history in the Ahaggar MountainsThe climate of the Sahara has undergone enormous variation between wet and dry over the last few hundred thousand years. During the last ice age, the Sahara was bigger than it is today, extending south beyond its current boundaries.Christopher Ehret. The Civilizations of Africa. University Press of Virginia, 2002. The end of the ice age brought better times to the Sahara, from about 8000 BC to 6000 BC, perhaps due to low pressure areas over the collapsing ice sheets to the north. Fezzan Project — Palaeoclimate and environment, retrieved March 15 2006.Once the ice sheets were gone, the northern part of the Sahara dried out. However, not long after the end of the ice sheets, the monsoon which currently brings rain to the Sahara came further north and counteracted the drying trend in the southern Sahara. The monsoon in Africa (and elsewhere) is due to heating during the summer. Air over land becomes warmer and rises, pulling in cool wet air from the ocean. This causes rain. Paradoxically, the Sahara was wetter when it received more solar insolation in the summer. In turn, changes in solar insolation are caused by changes in the Earth's orbital elements"Geophysical Research Letters" Simulation of an abrupt change in Saharan vegetation in the mid-Holocene - July 15th, 1999.

By around 2500 BC, the monsoon retreated south to approximately where it is today, Sahara's Abrupt Desertification Started by Changes in Earth's Orbit, Accelerated by Atmospheric and Vegetation Feedbacks. leading to the desertification of the Sahara. The Sahara is currently as dry as it was about 13,000 years ago. These conditions are responsible for what has been called the Sahara Pump Theory.

The Sahara has one of the harshest climates in the world. It has many strong winds that blow from the north-east. Sometimes on the border zones of the north and south, the desert will receive about 25 cm (10 in.) of rain a year. The rainfall happens very rarely, but when it does it is usually torrential when it occurs after long dry periods, which can last for years.

==History==

Egyptians By 6000 BC predynastic Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle and construction large buildings. Subsistence in organized and permanent towns in predynastic Egypt by the middle of the 6th millennium BC centered predominantly on cereal and animal History of agriculture: cattle, goats, pigs and sheep. Metal objects replaced prior ones of rock (geology). Tanning of animal skins, pottery and weaving are commonplace in this era also. Predynastic] (5,500–3,100 BC), Tour Egypt]. There are indications of seasonal or only temporary occupation of the Al Fayyum in the 6th millennium BC, with food activities centering on fishing, hunting and food-gathering. Stone arrowheads, knife and scrapers are common. Fayum, Qarunian (Fayum B, about 6000–5000 BC?), Digital Egypt. Burial items include pottery, jewelry, farming and hunting equipment, and assorted foods including dried meat and fruit. The dead are buried facing due west.By 2500 BC the Sahara was as dry as it is today, and it became a largely impenetrable barrier to humans, with only scattered settlements around the oases, but little trade or commerce through the desert. The one major exception was the Nile. The Nile, however, was impassable at several Cataracts of the Niles, making trade and contact by boat difficult.

Nubians During the Neolithic, before the onset of desertification, the central Sudan had been a rich environment supporting a large population ranging across what is now barren desert, like the Wadi el-Qa'ab. By the 5th millennium BC, the peoples who inhabited what is now called Nubia, were full participants in the "agricultural revolution," living a settled lifestyle with domesticated plants and animals. Saharan rock art of cattle and herdsmen found suggests the presence of a cattle cult like those found in Sudan and other pastoral societies in Africa today. History of Nubia Megaliths found at Nabta Playa are overt examples of probably the world's first known Archaeoastronomy devices, out dating Stonehenge by some 1000 years. PlanetQuest: The History of Astronomy - Retrieved on 2007-08-29 This complexity, as observed at Nabta Playa, and as expressed by different levels of authority within the society there, likely formed the basis for the structure of both the Neolithic society at Nabta and the Old Kingdom of Egypt. Late Neolithic megalithic structures at Nabta Playa - by Fred Wendorf (1998)

Phoenicians The peoples of Phoenicia, who flourished between 1200-800 BC, created a confederation of kingdoms across the entire Sahara to Egypt. They generally settled along the Mediterranean coast, as well as the Sahara, among the peoples of Ancient Libya, who were the ancestors of peoples who speak Berber languages in North Africa and the Sahara today, including the Tuareg of the central Sahara.

The Phoenician alphabet seems to have been adopted by the ancient Libyans of north Africa, and Tifinagh is still used today by Berber-speaking Tuareg camel herders of the central Sahara.

Sometime between 633 BC and 530 BC, Hanno the Navigator either established or reinforced Phoenician colonies in Western Sahara, but all ancient remains have vanished with virtually no trace. (See History of Western Sahara.)

Greeks By 500 BC a new influence arrived in the form of the Ancient Greece. Greek traders spread along the eastern coast of the desert, establishing trading colonies along the Red Sea coast. The Carthage explored the Atlantic coast of the desert. The turbulence of the waters and the lack of markets never led to an extensive presence further south than modern Morocco. Centralized states thus surrounded the desert on the north and east; it remained outside of the control of these states. Raids from the nomadic Berber people of the desert were a constant concern of those living on the edge of the desert.

man Urban civilization An urban civilization, the Garamantes, arose around this time in the heart of the Sahara, in a valley that is now called the Wadi al-Ajal in Fazzan, Libya. The Garamantes achieved this development by digging tunnels far into the mountains flanking the valley to tap fossil water and bring it to their fields. The Garamantes grew populous and strong, conquering their neighbors and capturing many slaves (which were put to work extending the tunnels). The ancient Greeks and the Ancient Rome knew of the Garamantes and regarded them as uncivilized nomads. However, they traded with the Garamantes, and a Roman bath has been found in the Garamantes capital of Garama. Archaeology have found eight major towns and many other important settlements in the Garamantes territory. The Garamantes civilization eventually collapsed after they had depleted available water in the aquifers, and could no longer sustain the effort to extend the tunnels still further into the mountains.Keys, David. 2004. Kingdom of the Sands. Archaeology. Volume 57 Number 2, March/April 2004. Abstract retrieved March 13 2006.

Trans-Saharan Trade Following the Islamic conquest of North Africa in the seventh century Common Era, trade across the desert intensified. The kingdoms of the Sahel, especially the Ghana Empire and the later Mali Empire, grew rich and powerful exporting gold and salt to North Africa. The emirates along the Mediterranean Sea sent south manufactured goods and horses. From the Sahara itself, edible salt was exported. This process turned the scattered oasis communities into trading centres, and brought them under the control of the empires on the edge of the desert. A significant slave trade crossed the desert (See Arab slave trade).

This trade persisted for several centuries until the development in Europe of the caravel allowed ships, first from Portugal but soon from all Western Europe, to sail around the desert and gather the resources from the source in Guinea (region). The Sahara was rapidly remarginalized.

Modern days Throughout the Sahara, Berbers, Arabs, and sub-Saharan Africans are significantly represented genetically.

The modern era has seen a number of mining and communities develop to exploit the desert's natural resources. These include large deposits of petroleum and natural gas in Algeria and Libya and large deposits of phosphates in Morocco and Western Sahara.

Fauna

There exist other animals in the Sahara (birds in particular) such as African Silverbill and Black-throated Firefinch among others.

See also

References

Notes External links



The Sahara Desert Region of Morocco - Morocco.com
A guide to the wonders of the Moroccan Sahara Desert and its fascinating features on Morocco.com.

Oxfam's Cool Planet - On the Line - deserts - the Sahara desert
On the Line, an educational millennium project involving cultural exchange between United Kingdom and other meridian line countries. A partnership between Oxfam GB, WWF-UK and ...

Sahara - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Sahara (Arabic: الصحراء الكبرى ‎, aṣ-ṣaḥrā´ al-kubra, "The Great Desert") is the world's largest hot desert and the world's second largest desert after ...

After Adoption - Sahara Desert Trek
After Adoption - Sahara Desert Trek ... Sahara Desert Trek 2008. If you have ever wanted to do an exhilarating challenge for charity here is your chance.

Sahara Desert- Plants, Animals, Facts, People, Climate, Pictures and ...
Sahara Desert on Sahara-Desert.net ... We welcome you at Sahara-Desert.net to give you the detailed information about Sahara Desert.

the Living Africa: the land - Sahara Desert - intro
Information on the physical features, drainage, climate, plant and animal life, as well as the people who live in the Sahara. Published by The Living Africa.

Sahara Desert Trek
We invite you to join us for an amazing nine day adventure trekking across the Sahara. The desert stretches 4800km from the snow capped High Atlas Mountains of Morocco in the west ...

Foogle Business - The Sahara - Sahara Desert Supposition - Sahara ...
Cult figured Site that shows a Proposal to Terraform the Sahara Desert and reclaim it and turn it into a New Rainforest and a new ocean of fresh water. Many Facts Here.

Sahara Desert Trek
Experience the formidable and inhospitable environment of the Sahara Desert on this long-weekend trekking Challenge!

The Sahara Desert
Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction in the Sahara Desert. The Sahara Desert is the largest desert in the world (somewhere between 7 to 9 million km 2), about one third of the ...

 

Sahara Desert



 
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